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Автор: navip

Содержание

Introduction…. 4

1 The history of the youth culture in the USA… 6

1.1 The origin of the term “culture”…. 6

1.2 Youth Culture of 18th and 19th centuries…. 8

1.3 Youth Culture of 20th century…. 10

2 The most popular subcultures in the USA…. 14

2.1 The definition of the term “subculture”…. . 14

2.2 The history of subcultures in the 20th century…. 16

2.3 The origin, fashion and ideology of subcultures…. 23

2.3.1 Punks…. 23

2.3.2 Emos…. 25

2.3.3 Hip-hoppers…. 26

2.3.3.1 Rapping and dj…. 27

2.3.3.2 Breaking…. 28

2.3.3.3 Graffiti art…. 29

2.3.4 Goths…. 30

2.3.5 Skinheads…. 31

2.4 The influence of subcultures and their problems…. 33

Conclusion… 36

Bibliography…. 38


Введение

The development of the culture of the United States of America has been marked by a tension between two strong sources of inspiration: European ideals, especially British; and domestic originality.

American culture encompasses traditions, ideals, customs, beliefs, values, arts, and innovations developed both domestically and imported via colonization and immigration from the British Isles. Prevalent ideas and ideals which evolved domestically such as important national holidays, uniquely American sports, proud military tradition, and innovations in the arts and entertainment give a strong sense of national pride among the population as a whole.

It includes both conservative and liberal elements, military and scientific competitiveness, political structures, risk taking and free expression, materialist and moral elements.

It also includes elements which evolved from Native Americans, and other ethnic subcultures; most prominently the culture of African American slave descendants and different cultures from Latin America. Many cultural elements, especially popular culture have been exported across the globe through modern mass media where American culture is sometimes resented.

Youth cultures have not been part of all societies throughout history; they appear most frequently where significant realms of social autonomy for young people become regularized and expected features of the socialization process. Most scholars would agree that the conditions necessary for the mass youth cultures recognizable today appeared after the formation of modern nation-states and the routinization of the human life course in the industrializing nations of the nineteenth century. The mass institutions of the nation-state, which separate young people from adults and gather them in large numbers for education, religious instruction, training, work, or punishment have been consistent locations in which youth cultures have developed. There is some evidence suggesting that youth cultures may have existed in certain circumstances during the medieval period. Also, it is important to recognize that there are significant gaps in our historical understanding, particularly for populations outside of Europe and the United States. Youth cultures have been clearly evident in the twentieth century, particularly since the end of World War II. The history of this period is notably marked by significant social and cultural influences of youth cultures on society at large, a trend that continues in the contemporary period.

Research into youth cultures has been most prolific in the disciplines of sociology, psychology, and anthropology; it is readily apparent in criminology of juveniles, demographic analyses, studies of the family and adolescent social development, and the study of ritual. The analytic frameworks and debates about youth cultures that have emerged from the three major disciplines have been taken up in other areas of study, including history.

This job is topical nowadays as we knew about American youth culture too little. More detailed study of this theme helps us to understand, firstly, the influence of subcultures on the youth: their fashion, hairstyle and lifestyle, and, secondly, difference between such terms as culture and subculture. Also this project is topical because we want to solve such problems as use of alcohol, drugs and smoking among the youth. To solve these problems we need to find firstly the root of all evil, and to find the root of all evil we should study the theme of youth culture more detailed. There is one more problem nowadays among the youth – violence. Different subcultures create hostility between different youth groups. Such question as “why so?” appear. The study of my job’s theme helps to find all answers which we need. Also my job is useful because in our country there are a lot of different subcultures which have come from the USA and for better understanding their essence we need study their origin and their history.

The aim of this job is to study the history and the most popular cultures and subcultures to understand their influence and problems. The following objectives have been posed for prevailing:

1. to study the origin and definition of the terms “culture” and “subculture”;

2. to describe the history of American youth culture and subcultures;

3. to study the origin, fashion and ideology of the most popular subcultures in the USA;

4. to find out the influence of subcultures and their problems.

During writing of job have been used such methods of research as study and analysis of different literatures. The results of this job can be used in different schools, colleges, universities and so on for study of American youth culture.


Выдержка из текста работы

1 THE HISTORY OF THE YOUTH CULTURE IN THE USA

1.1 The origin and definition of the term “culture”

Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate") is a term that has different meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions [19,p.3]. However, the word "culture" is most commonly used in three basic senses:

• Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture;

• An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning;

• The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution, organization or group.

When the concept first emerged in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, it connoted a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In the nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national aspirations or ideals. In the mid-nineteenth century, some scientists used the term "culture" to refer to a universal human capacity [27,p.6].

In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology, encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings:

1. the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively;

2. the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively.

Following World War II, the term became important, albeit with different meanings, in other disciplines such as cultural studies, organizational psychology and management studies [19,p.173].

According to the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia the culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behaviour that is both a result of integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations. Culture thus consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, ceremonies, and symbols. It has played a crucial role in human evolution, allowing human beings to adapt the environment to their own purposes rather than depend solely on natural selection to achieve adaptive success. Every human society has its own particular culture, or sociocultural system. Variation among cultures is attributable to such factors as differing physical habitats and resources; the range of possibilities inherent in areas such as language, ritual, and social organization; and historical phenomena such as the development of links with other cultures. An individual's attitudes, values, ideals, and beliefs are greatly influenced by the culture (or cultures) in which he or she lives. Culture change takes place as a result of ecological, socioeconomic, political, religious, or other fundamental factors affecting a society [5,p.347].

We are interested the term in such sense as complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man person as a member of society. According to this point of view culture has several important characteristics:

1. Culture is comprehensive. This means that all parts must fit together in some logical fashion. For example, bowing and a strong desire to avoid the loss of face are unified in their manifestation of the importance of respect.

2. Culture is learned rather than being something we are born with.

3. Culture is manifested within boundaries of acceptable behavior. For example, in American society, one cannot show up to class naked, but wearing anything from a suit and tie to shorts and a T-shirt would usually be acceptable. Failure to behave within the prescribed norms may lead to sanctions, ranging from being hauled off by the police for indecent exposure to being laughed at by others for wearing a suit at the beach.

4. Conscious awareness of cultural standards is limited. One American spy was intercepted by the Germans during World War II simply because of the way he held his knife and fork while eating.

5. Cultures fall somewhere on a continuum between static and dynamic depending on how quickly they accept change. For example, American culture has changed a great deal since the 1950s, while the culture of Saudi Arabia has changed much less [19,p.168].

Culture is known to have many meanings. One of them refers to the spiritual and material achievements of humanity. On the whole it is possible to distinguish three kinds of culture. They are elite culture, folk culture and popular culture. These cultures are closely connected with one another and one culture is part of the others. Elite culture is a highly developed sphere, it is comprised of painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, music. Folk culture is the culture of everyday life and routine relations of social life. Folk culture consists of traditional knowledge and practice. It is like a habit of people, thus this culture does not change very quickly. Popular culture is mass culture. It is a professionally organized sphere that works for a large mass of people. Popular culture gives people, especially young, standards to be what they like.

Today the life of many young people is influenced by popular culture. The youth follow certain stereotypes that are imposed on them through TV, movies, and music. In their lifestyles they try to imitate the images of their idols. Other young people are sports and music fans. They frequent stadiums and huge concert halls. They follow their idols in their tours throughout the country and support them. Unfortunately they are intolerant to those who do not share their view. It is a specific aspect of the youth subculture that cannot be ignored.

Culture is among the most complicated words in the English language. It refers to the processes by which the symbolic systems (e.g., common sense, "usual way of doing things"; traditions and rituals, frameworks for understanding experience, etc.) characteristically shared by a group of people are maintained and transformed across time. Despite the appearance of stability, culture is a dynamic, historical process. Youth culture refers to those processes and symbolic systems that young people share that are, to some degree, distinctive from those of their parents and the other adults in their community.


Заключение

The aim of this job was to study the history and the main types of youth culture and subcultures in the USA to understand their influence and problems. First of all to achieve this aim the terms “culture” and “subculture” have been defined. As we know these terms have a lot of different definitions subject to in which sphere they are used. But we are interested in the following definitions:

 Culture is an integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning;

 Subculture is a group within a society that has its own shared set of customs, attitudes, and values, often accompanied by jargon or slang. A subculture can be organized around a common activity, occupation, age, status, ethnic background, race, religion, or any other unifying social condition;

On the one hand according to these definitions we may say that culture is something common for nation and subculture is a part a whole system, but on the other hand if we consider these terms more attentive we will see that “culture” and “subculture” are different and even absolutely contrary things, because the term “subculture” is often used to describe deviant groups, such as thieves and drug users.

The next step to achieve our aim was the study of the history of youth culture in the USA. Considered the history of American youth culture we may draw a conclusion that the historic events had a great influence on the development of different historical youth cultures. But young people across history have demonstrated great resourcefulness in collectively exploiting those limitations to gain some self-directed social space.

Also in this job we considered subcultures in the USA, their origin, fashion and ideology to understand their influence and problems. Social class, gender and ethnicity can be important in relation to youth subcultures. Youth subcultures can be defined as meaning systems, modes of expression or lifestyles developed by groups in subordinate structural positions in response to dominant systems — and which reflect their attempt to solve structural contradictions rising from the wider societal context. The study of subcultures often consists of the study of the symbolism attached to clothing, music, other visible affections by members of the subculture and also the ways in which these same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture.

Some people think that subculture is useful, but other people consider that subculture and its followers are dangerous for society. Why do people have so different opinions? One people think that subcultures give youth such facilities as to meet with each other and hear many new things, to take part in meetings, where they listen to music and rest, to help each other, when member of group need to help and all of these things are very well. But the other people notice that subcultures have a lot of such dark sides as firstly, members of some groups think, that force is only decision of many arguments; secondly, people use drugs, alcohol in order to relax, they become addict, weak-willed; thirdly, different groups make war between each other, they make massacre, oppose to ceremonial power. But even we will take into account both positive and negative we can’t say that subcultures are bad or good. Most probably this question will be asked for a long time.

This job has a great social significance, because nowadays both in the USA and in our countries there are a lot of different subcultures with their problems. And to understand how we may dispose of these problems, at first we should study the different types of subcultures and their influence on the youth. Only when we find the root of problems we will be able to put the axe in the helve. Also this job is social important because it can be used in different educational institutions for study of American youth culture.


Список литературы

1. Amit-Talai, V. Youth Cultures: A Cross-Cultural Perspective/ V. Amit-Talai, H. Wulff. – London: routledge, 1995. – 239p.

2. Attridge, D. Poetic Rhythm: An Introduction/ D. Attridge. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. – 274p.

3. Austin, J. Generations of Youth: Youth Cultures and History in Twentieth-Century America/ J. Austin, M. Willard. – New York: New York University Press, 1998. – 474p.

4. Brake, M. Comparative Youth Culture/ M. Brake. – London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985. – 240p.

5. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. – Oxford University Press, 2003. – 2067p.

6. Bucksch, H. Dental Dictionary/ H. Bucksch. – Neuer Merkur, 1978. – 846p.

7. Chang, J. Can’t Stop Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation/ J. Chang, Dj K. Herc. – Macmillan, 2005. – 546p.

8. Diawara, M. In Search of Africa/ M. Diawara. – Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. – 288p.

9. Emo// Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia [Electronic resource]. – 2001. – Access mode: h**t://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emo. - Retrieved: 05.05.2010.

10. Gelder, K. Subcultures: Cultural Histories and Social Practice/ K. Gelder. – London: Routledge, 2007. – 188p.

11. Glover, D. Science Dictionary/ D. Glover. – Heinemann Educational, 1997. – 24p.

12. Greenwald, A. Nothing Feels Good: Punk Rock, Teenagers, and Emo/ A. Greenwald. – New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2003. – 321p.

13. Harrington,J. Sonic Cool: The Life and Death of Rock’n’Roll/ J. Harrington. – Hal-Leonard, 2002. –595p.

14. Hebdige, D. Subculture the Meaning of Style/ D. Hebdige. – Menthuen and Co. Ltd, 1979. – 195p.

15. Hip Hop// Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia [Electronic resource]. – 2001. – Access mode: h**t://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_Hop. - Retrieved: 05.05.2010.

16. Kent, M. The Oxford dictionary of sports science and medicine/ M. Kent. – Oxford University Press, 1998. – 567p.

17. Kett, J. Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America 1790 to the Present/ J. Kett. – New York: Basic Books, 1977. – 327p.

18. Kipfer, B.A. Archaeology Dictionary/ B.A. Kipfer. – Kluwer Academic, 2000. – 708p.

19. Kroeber, A. Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definiyions/ A. Kroeber, C. Kluckhohn. – London: Routledge, 1952. – 223p.

20. Levi, G. A History of Young People in the West, Vol.1/ G. Levi, J.C. Schmitt. – Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997. – 464p.

21. Light, A. The Vibe History of Hip-Hop/ A. Light. – New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999. – 418p.

22. Miller, W.C. Veterinary Dictionary/ W.C. Miller. – Tindall and Cox, 1935. – 1140p.

23. Powell, K. Who Shot Ya? Three decades of hip-hop/ K. Powell, E. Paniccioli. – New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2002. – 201p.

24. Punks// The Situationist International Text Library [Electronic resource]. – 2010. – Access mode: h**t://library.nothingness.org/articles/ SI/en/display/86. – Retrieved: 26.04.2010.

25. Savage, J. Teenage: The Creation of Youth Culture/ J. Savage. – Viking. England, 2007. – 551p.

26. Siegel, C. Goth’s Dark Empire/ C. Siegel. – London: Routledge, 2005. – 211p.

27. Simmel: On individuality and social forms/ Ed. D.N. Levine. – Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1971. – 412p.

28. Skinhead// Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia [Electronic resource]. – 2001. – Access mode: h**t://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhead. - Retrieved: 05.05.2010.

29. Stover, A.S. Hip-Hop intellectual resistance/ A.S. Stover. – Xlibris Corporation, 2009. – 132p.

30. Straw, W. Systems of Articulation, Logics of Change: Communities and Scenes in Popular Music/ W. Straw. – New York: Three Rivers Press, 1991. – 463p.

31. The History of Western Subcultures in 20th century// Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia [Electronic resource]. – 2001. – Access mode: h**t://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Western_subcultures_in_the_20th_century. Retrieved: 05.05.2010.

32. Thorton, S. Club Cultures: Music Media and Subcultural Capital/ S. Thorton. – Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995. – 191p.

33. Voltaire. What is Goth/ Voltaire. – Red Wheel, 2004. – 96p.


Тема: «American youth culture»
Раздел: Иностранные языки
Тип: Курсовая работа
Страниц: 57
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    1 Прочитайте текст, ответьте письменно на поставленные вопросы
    How To Get That Job
    Before the interview:
     Find out as much as you can about the company.
     Think about questions which the interviewer might ask you. Plan how to answer them.
     Dress smartly.
     Don't be late. If you are very early, have a coffee in a local cafe and look at your notes.
     Switch off your mobile and take two or three slow, deep breaths before you go in.
    During the interview:
     When you walk in, shake hands firmly with the interviewer, look them in the eyes and say «Pleased to meet you».
     Answer the questions in a confident, firm voice. Don't speak too quietly, too quickly or too hesitant.
     Answers should not be one word or one sentence, but also should not be too long.
     When answering questions, maintain eye contact with the interviewer. If there is more than one interviewer, give them equal attention.
     Give clear, direct answers to questions. If you don't know something, say so.
     Don't lie.
     At the end of the interviewer, you might be asked: «Are there any questions that you would like to ask us?» Make sure you have one or two good questions ready
     Above all, be positive and show enthusiasm for the job.
    After the interview:
     If you don't answer a question well in the interview, don't be afraid to phone soon afterwards and say something like: «I don't think I explained myself very well in the interview. What I wanted to say was.» This will show enthusiasm and it will remind them of you.
    Ответы на вопросы:
    1 What research do you need to do before the interview?
    Find as much as possible about a company.
    2 What kind of clothes should you wear to the interview?
    Suit.
    3 What should you do if you arrive very early?
    Have a coffee in a local café and go through your notes.
    4 What should you do just before you enter the interview room?
    Switch off mobile phone and take two o three deep breaths.
    5 What should you do and say when you meet the interviewer?
    Shake hands firmly, look into their eyes and say – pleased to meet you.
    6 How long should your answers to questions be?
    Not one sentence and not too long.
    7 How should you answer questions?
    Clear? Direct answers.
    8 Where should you look when you answer questions?
    Into their eyes.
    9 What should your general attitude in the interview be?
    Don’t lie.
    10 What should you do after the interview?
    Don’t be afraid to call and explain, if you feel that you wasn’t good enough during an interview.
    2 Прочитайте текст, письменно переведите абзацы B,C,D:
    How To Write A Resume
    A One of the pillars of American work-culture is the resume. A resume is a primary way Americans search for employment and companies hire prospective employees. Resumes represent who you are and what you can offer to a company. Since an American company receives many more resumes than available positions, it is critical that your resume imparts the most favourable impression possible about your experience and abilities.
    B Resumes are usually limited to one or two pages. As prospective employees spend a very short amount of time looking at many resumes, it is critical to write your resume in a concise and organized way. Resumes are often written in a chronological manner to help employees navigate through information to an employer in a neat and organized fashion. An employer will likely lose interest in a resume which is full of errors and unorganized.
    C The resume should convey two important things. First, your resume should inform an employer about your employment and contain work experience, educational history, awards and honours, any special organisations to which you belonged. This may give an impression of you as a potentially valuable enployer to the company. Therefore it is important to provide specific information about your experience including your responsibilities, dates of employment, budgets, number of employees you supervised.
    D The second goal of a resume is to capture the attention of an employer and convince him to take the time to interview you. A resume should be targeted towards the particular position for which you are applying. First you should determine what strengths and weaknesses you have in relation to the available position and then structure your resume to highlight your position of defining your experience. Stress relevant responsibilities and skills.
    E It is important to remember not to misrepresent yourself when you are designing your resume. Employers will usually check on the information provided. Often an employer will ask for references to verify the information you provide.
    Перевод
    B. Обычно резюме ограничивается одной или двумя страницами. На потенциальных работников тратят очень мало времени, просматривая многие резюме, поэтому очень важно написать ваше резюме лаконично и организованно. Резюме часто написаны в хронологическом порядке, чтобы помочь сотрудникам ориентироваться в информации работодателя в аккуратном и организованном порядке. Работодатель, скорее всего, потеряет интерес к резюме, которое полно ошибок и неорганизованно.
    C. Резюме должно передать две важные вещи. Во-первых, ваше резюме должно проинформировать работодателя о вашей занятости и содержать опыт работы, образовательную историю, награды и почетные звания, каких-либо специальных организаций, к которым принадлежали. Это может создать впечатление о вас, как о потенциально-ценном работнике в компании. Поэтому важно предоставить конкретную информацию о вашем опыте, включая ваши обязанности, сроки работы, бюджет и контролируемое количество сотрудников.
    D. Во-вторых, резюме должно привлечь внимание работодателя и убедить его освободить время для того, чтобы провести с вами собеседование. Резюме должно быть ориентировано на конкретную должность, на которую вы претендуете. Прежде всего, нужно определить, какие сильные и слабые стороны у вас есть по отношению к имеющейся должности, а затем структурировать ваше резюме так, чтобы подчеркнуть ваши позиции определения опыта к данной должности. Подчеркните соответствующие обязанности и навыки.
    3 Найдите в тексте «How to write a resume» соответствующие русским словосочетаниям английские эквиваленты:
    1 искать работу – to search an emploment
    2 нанять перспективного работника – to hire prospective employees
    3 вакантная должность – available positions
    4 писать в сжатом виде – to write in a concise way
    5 ориентироваться в образовательной и трудовой биографии – to navigate through information to an employer
    6 безошибочная информация – specific information
    7 доносить важные моменты – target towards the particular position
    8 первое впечатление - impression
    9 потенциально ценный работник – a potentially valuable employer
    10 завладеть вниманием работодателя – to capture the attention of an employer
    11 сильные и слабые стороны – strengths and weaknesses
    12 запрашивать рекомендации – to ask for references
    4 Составьте своё резюме на английском языке.
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    Английский язык, вариант 3

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    Вопрос 1.
    Read the article in detail and answer the questions which follow:
    ‘Youth's behaviour with pellet pistol 'stupid, dangerous and outrageous'.
    Shooting a pellet gun at an 11-year-old boy on a bike is a "stupid, dangerous and outrageous to behave", Judge Anthony Palmer scolded a Col wood-area teenager in Western Communities Courthouse April 29. "I don't know if you've seen too many movies or not," he continued, "but anything involving a handgun is completely reprehensible",
    The 17-year-old boy was ordered to serve a six-month period of probation, 25 hours of community works and to apologize in person to his victim. He was also ordered not to possess weapons, ammunition or explosives for five years. Crown counsel Bruce Filan told the court the young cyclist was riding on Atkins Road Dec.22, 1991, and noticed three young males sitting in a car. As he passed, he said "hi" to the group and continued on his way. Then he heard a loud "ping" coming from the direction of the vehicle, turned around and saw one of the boys aiming a gun in his direction and heard two more "pings". Filan described the boy as "very frightened," especially when the car started up and drove towards him. Not very far from home, he raced to tell his father what had happened. The father then pursued the teenagers in his car; forcing them to stop and answer questions.
    According to man, police later determined the accused teenager was the only one with a weapon - an air pistol that still had pellets in its chamber when recovered by police at the boy's residence. The young victim was very upset by the ordeal and is receiving counseling, Filan added.
    Defence counsel Dianne McDonald said her client was not aiming the pistol at the younger boy and had no intention of harming him. Only two shots were fired, she insisted. When her client realized his actions had scared the boy he tried to apologize but was told not to contact the victim, she added.
    She also explained the teenagers were not really chasing the boy in the car; but when the driver realised the boy was scared, he tried to follow to explain no one was aiming at him.
    Mc. Donald reported her client has been doing well since tile incident and he hopes to return to school in the fall. For now he is enrolled in correspondence classes and is seeking employment, McDonald told the court.
    1. The 17-year-old youth was accused of
    A. possessing a handgun without the correct license.
    В. endangering another person's life with a gun.
    С. driving a car in a dangerous manner.
    D. being drunk and disorderly in a public place.
    2. The father of the 11-year-old victim appears to have
    A. questioned his son at length about the incident.
    В. made an immediate complaint to the local police.
    С. forced the teenagers involved to go to the police station.
    D. chased after the young men in his car to get an explanation.
    3. The police apparently found a loaded air pistol
    A. in the 17-year-old youth's pocket.
    В. at the home of the 17-year-old youth.
    С. in the boot of his car.
    D. at the home of one of his friends.
    4. Apparently, the 11-year-old boy
    A. is still receiving professional help.
    В. is now too afraid to go out alone.
    С. will no longer ride his bicycle.
    D. has finally recovered from the experience.
    5. The 17-year-old boy was
    A. sent to prison for six months.
    В. ordered to pay a large fine.
    С. given probation and community service.
    D. found not guilty of the crime.
    Вопрос 2.
    Next to each word, write the number from the corresponding part of the letter. The first has been done for you.
    _ date
    _ references
    _ conclusion
    _ typed signature
    _ position/title
    _ main paragraph
    _ salutation
    _ recipient's address
    _ complimentary ending
    _ written signature
    _ letterhead
    _ introductory paragraph
    _ sender's address
    _ enclosures
    (1) WIDGETRY LTD
    6 Pine Estate, Westhornet, Bedfordshire, UB 18 22
    (2) Telephone 9017 23456 Telex X23X WE) Fax 9017
    Michael Scott, Sales Manager,
    Smith and Brown plc,
    (3) Napier House
    North Molton Street,
    Oxbridge OB84 9TD.
    (4) Your ref. MS/WID/15/88
    Our ref. ST/MN/10/88
    (5) 31 January 1998
    (6) Dear Mr. Scott,
    (7) Thank you for your letter of 20 January, explaining that the super widgets, catalogue reference X-3908, are no longer available but that ST-1432, made to the same specifications but using a slightly different alloy, are now available instead. Before I place a firm order I should like to see samples of the new super widgets. If the replacement is as good as you say it is, I shall certainly wish to submit a new order.
    (8) I would prefer to continue to deal with Smith and Brown, whose service has always been satisfactory in the past. But you will understand that I must safeguard Widgetry's interests and make sure that the quality is good.
    (9) I would, therefore, be grateful if you could let me have a sample as soon as possible.
    (10) Yours sincerely,
    (11) Simon Thomas
    (12) Simon Thomas
    (13) Production Manager
    (14) enc.
    Вопрос 3.
    This letter has been revised so many times by Mr. Thomas that it has become all mixed up, and his word processor has failed to reorganize it. Arrange the letter so that everything is in the correct order.
    (1) Simon Thomas
    (2) WIDGETRY LTD
    (3) 6 Pine Estate, Westhornet, Bedfordshire, UBI8 22 BC.
    Telephone 9017 23456 Telex X238 WID Fax 9017 67 893
    (4) I look forward to hearing from you.
    (5) Your ref. MS/WID/15/88
    Our ref. ST/MN/10/88
    (6) Yours sincerely,
    (7) James Bowers, Sales Manager
    Electroscan Ltd.,
    Orchard Road Estate,
    Oxbridge UB84 10SF.
    (8) Production Manager
    (9) Thank you for your letter. I am afraid that we have a problem with your order.
    (10) 6 June 1998
    (11) Unfortunately, the manufacturers of the part you wish to order have advised us that they cannot supply it until September. Would you prefer us to supply a substitute, or would you rather wait until the original parts are again available?
    (12) Dear Mr. Bowers
    Вопрос 4.
    Contrast. Look at the following ways of expressing contrast:
    a) Turnover increased. However, profitability fell.
    b) Although turnover increased, profitability fell.
    c) Profitability fell (even) though turnover increased.
    d) It would be difficult to ventilate site B, while/whereas the exterior position of site A could improve ventilation.
    "However" is used for general contrasts where the ideas are not equivalent. "Although" is used when there is a contrast that surprises us; "even though" is like "although" but more emphatic. "While/whereas" are used where there is contrast between equivalent ideas.
    Use 'although', 'even though', 'whereas', 'while' or 'however' to contrast the following:
    1) There are only recruiters. They do most of the work.
    2) Site В would be easy to build on. Site A would require new foundations.
    3) Salaries have been fixed for two years. They will be revised if business improves.
    4) The recruitment agency concentrated on the UK. Its competitors turned to foreign markets.
    5) There are ten managers. Only the Managing Director has decision making power.
    Вопрос 5.
    Дополните предложения правильной идиомой в правильной грамматической форме:
    be dead against something
    make a dead set at someone
    a dead loss
    a dead end
    cut someone dead
    dead right
    Пример: Have you been able to persuade your father to buy a computer? No he is dead against the idea.
    1. I had difficulty in finding the way. I took a wrong turning and it was _ .
    2. Why won't Mary speak to me? She simply _ in the bank yesterday.
    3. You warned me that I'd be sorry if I bought an old car, and you were _ . I've paid a fortune in repairs.
    4. Mark can play the violin beautifully but he's _ at anything practical.
    5. David behaved badly during the meeting. He _ Andrew without any provocation whatsoever.
    Вопрос 6.
    Заполните пропуски соответствующими идиомами в правильной форме.
    draw money out
    an open cheque
    a current account
    a crossed cheque
    pay (money) in
    bounce
    make out a cheque
    a deposit account
    open an account
    a joint account
    I must tell you about a customer who came into the bank this morning - a strange old fellow, wearing a cap and a shabby raincoat. He said he wanted to _1_ with our bank. From his questions, it sounded as if he had a bank account before, so I explained to him that with _2_ you can _3_ whenever you want, but with _4_ you have to give a week's notice.
    He seemed confused, so I showed him a cheque book and explained how to _5_ - he had obviously never signed a cheque before. Then I explained the difference between _6_ and _7_. I also asked him if he wanted one signature on the cheque or whether it would be _8_ together with his wife. He said he didn't want his wife to know anything about it! When I asked whether there would be regular payments into this account, he answered with a grin, "Don't worry, my cheques won't _9_, if that's what you're afraid of."
    Then he said he'd like to open a deposit account and brought out a parcel wrapped in newspaper. I tried not to look surprised when he opened it - it contained more than £ 10,000 tied up with string and rubber bands! "That's just for a start" he said. "What I _10_ tomorrow depends on how much I win on the horses today!"
    Вопрос 7.
    Which is correct?
    1. A "blank cheque" has no _ on it.
    date
    signature
    amount
    2. When you write out a cheque, you are _.
    the payee
    the bearer
    the drawer
    3. One of the most common methods of payment is _ cheque.
    with
    through
    by
    4. A "post-dated cheque" bears _.
    a future date
    a post date
    a date that makes the cheque invalid
    5. Your current account is "in the red". This means _.
    you have no money in the account
    you have money in the account
    you must тark your cheques R/D
    6. A "bearer cheque" _.
    can only be paid into an account
    can be cashed by anyone who has it
    bears the payee's name
    Вопрос 8.
    Which is correct?
    1. A candidate for election _or_.
    stands for office
    goes for office
    sits for office
    runs for office
    2. A 'maiden speech' is made in the House _.
    by female MPs by new MPs only by ministers
    3. 'Front benchers' are _.
    seats at the front of the House
    long-serving members of parliament
    members of parliament who hold ministerial office
    4. If the Prime Minister 'goes to the country', he or she _.
    resigns holds a referendumcalls a general election
    5. In politics, the adjective 'shadow' means _.
    of the governing party
    of the opposition party
    previous
    second in importance
    Вопрос 9.
    Match each word with its definition:
    1 judge
    2 weapon
    3 reprehensible
    4 probation
    5 community work
    6 victim
    7 crown counsel
    8 the accused
    9 residence
    10 ordeal
    11 counselling
    12 defence counsel
    13 client
    14 incident
    A a situation that may involve violence
    В the activity of giving professional advice to people in need
    С the place where someone lives
    D doing work to help others instead of going to prison
    E a person being tried in court for a crime
    F bad, morally wrong
    G the person with the power to decide how to apply the law
    H an object used to kill or hurt people
    I someone who suffers as the result of a crime
    J a person who receives advice in return for payment
    К a lawyer who presents a case against an accused person
    L a period spent outside prison but under supervision
    M an extremely unpleasant experience or situation
    N a lawyer who acts on behalf of an accused person
    Вопрос 10.
    Which is correct?
    1. Which of the following is not a form of worker protest?
    a go-slow
    a work-to-rule
    a lock-out
    2. Workers "on the shop floor" are _.
    shop assistants
    shop stewards
    manual workers on the production line
    3. Which three mean the same?
    a shop steward
    a blackleg
    a strike breaker
    a scab
    a picket
    4. Which two expressions mean "finish work for the day"?
    knock off
    lay off
    sign off
    clock off
    5. When a worker is “laid off” he _.
    is ill
    is out of work temporarily
    is out of work permanently
    6. If you work longer than your usual working hours, you _.
    work unsocial hours
    do overtime
    do shift-work
    7. An unemployed person receiving money from the state is said to be _.
    on the board
    on the shop floor
    on the dole
    8. If you apply for a job but are not accepted you are _.
    laid off
    made redundant
    turned down
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    международных базах данных 13
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    КОЛЛЕКЦИИ BCAC 17
    2.1. Возникновение коллекции 17
    2.2. Развитие коллекции 18
    2.3. Характеристика ресурсов коллекции BCAC 19
    ГЛАВА 3. МАТЕРИАЛЫ И МЕТОДЫ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ 20
    3.1. Методика пересева 21
    3.2. Пересев агаризованной среды 22
    3.3. Пересев жидкой культуры 23
    3.4. Пересев нитчатых водорослей 23
    3.5. Условия культивирования 23
    3.6. Выбор среды культивирования 24
    3.7. Свет и температура 26
    3.8. Частота пересевов 27
    3.9. Определение оптимальных условий культивирования для новых изолятов 27
    3.10. Установка для культивирования 28
    3.11. Оборудование и условия, необходимые для постоянного 29

    культивирования
    3.12. Поддержание порядка в хранении культур в коллекции 30
    3.13. Оборудование, необходимое для поддержания коллекции ВСАС 30
    3.14. Питательные среды 31
    3.14.1. Основная среда Болда 31
    3.14.2. Среда Z8 33
    3.15. Создание электронного каталога коллекции ВСАС 35
    3.16. Методика внесения новых штаммов в электронный каталог BCAC 37
    ГЛАВА 4. РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ. ДОПОЛНЕНИЕ К КАТАЛОГУ ШТАММОВ BCAC НА ИЮНЬ 2019 ГОДА 38
    4.1. Результаты анализа штаммов BCAC 38
    4.1. Каталог штаммов ВСАС 38
    ВЫВОДЫ 89
    СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ 90
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    1.3 Функции сравнений ….14
    ВЫВОДЫ ПО ПЕРВОЙ ГЛАВЕ ….16
    ГЛАВА II: Явление сравнения как стилистического приема в немецкой и английской художественной литературе …18
    2.1 Анализ примеров сравнения в повести «Der Funke Leben» Эриха Марии Ремарка ….18
    2.1.1 Анализ примеров сравнения в повести «Liebe deinen Nächsten» Эриха Марии Ремарка ….23
    2.2 Анализ примеров стилистического сравнения в повести «Billard um halbzehn» Генриха Бёлля ….32
    2.3 Анализ примеров сравнения в повести Нила Геймана «Neverwhere».47
    2.3.1. Анализ примеров сравнения в повести Нила Геймана «American Gods».52
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    2.5 Сопоставительный анализ использования сравнения в художественных текстах немецкоязычных и англоязычных авторов….77
    2.6 Методические рекомендации по использованию полученных результатов исследования на уроках иностранного языка в школе ….80
    ВЫВОДЫ ПО ВТОРОЙ ГЛАВЕ.….84
    Заключение ….….86
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    ГЛАВА I. ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИЕ ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПУБЛИЦИСТИЧЕСКОГО СТИЛЯ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ И РУССКОМ ЯЗЫКАХ
    1.1 Язык СМИ и публицистический стиль 7
    1.2 Лингвистические особенности англоязычного газетного стиля 9
    1.3 Лингвистические особенности русскоязычного газетного стиля 19
    ВЫВОДЫ ПО ГЛАВЕ I 22
    ГЛАВА II. КАТЕГОРИЯ МОДАЛЬНОСТИ В ЛИНГВИСТИКЕ 24
    2.1 Определение категории модальности в современной лингвистике 24
    2.2 Виды модальности 26
    2.3 Модальность возможности и вероятности 30
    2.4 Средства выражения модальности в английском языке 33
    2.5 Средства выражения модальности в русском языке 36
    2.6 Проблемы сохранения модальных значений в переводе. 40
    ВЫВОДЫ ПО ГЛАВЕ II 44
    ГЛАВА III. АНАЛИЗ СРЕДСТВ ВЫРАЖЕНИЯ МОДАЛЬНОСТИ В АНГЛОЯЗЫЧНЫХ СМИ И ОСОБЕННОСТИ ИХ ПЕРЕВОДА НА РУССКИЙ ЯЗЫК.
    3.1 Переводческие трансформации в лингвистике 46
    3.2 Лингвистические средства выражения модальности возможности 51
    и вероятности в англоязычных СМИ и трансформации при переводе соответствующей модальности на русский язык
    ВЫВОДЫ ПО ГЛАВЕ III 82
    ГЛАВА IV. МЕТОДИЧЕСКАЯ РАЗРАБОТКА ПО ТЕМЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ
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    ВЫВОДЫ ПО ГЛАВЕ IV 102
    ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ 104
    СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННЫХ ИСТОЧНИКОВ И ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ 107

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    §2. Вычисление криволинейного интеграла 1-го рода . . . . . . 21
    §3. Основные свойства криволинейного интеграла 1-го рода . . 23
    §4. Криволинейные интегралы 2-го рода . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
    §5. Вычисление криволинейного интеграла 2-го рода . . . . . . 26
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    §6. Вычисление площади поверхности . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
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    §3. Поверхностный интеграл 2-го рода . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
    §4. Вычисление поверхностного интеграла 2-го рода . . . . . . . 47
    §5. Формула Стокса . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
    §6. Формула Остроградского . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
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    Приложение 2 106
    Приложение 3 107
    Приложение 4 108
    Приложение 5 109
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